Product Code Database
The inland taipan ( Oxyuranus microlepidotus), also Common name known as the western taipan, small-scaled snake, or fierce snake,White, Julian (November 1991). Oxyuranus microlepidotus. "Neurotoxic paralysis usually takes 2-4 hours to become clinically detectable. Coagulopathy however may become well established within 30 minutes of a bite" International Programme on Chemical Safety. Retrieved 8 November 2013. is a species of extremely venomous snake in the family Elapidae. The species is Endemism to semiarid regions of central east Australia.Cecilie Beatson (29 November 2011). Animal Species: Inland Taipan Australian Museum. Retrieved 14 October 2013. Aboriginal Australians living in Karnic languages named it dandarabilla.Queensland Snakes. History & Discovery. (archived) Queensland Museum. Retrieved 15 November 2013. It was formally described by Frederick McCoy in 1879 and William John Macleay in 1882, but for the next 90 years, it was a mystery to the scientific community; no further specimens were found, and virtually nothing was added to the knowledge of the species until its rediscovery in 1972.Rediscovery. The Rediscovery of the Western Taipan. (archived) Queensland Museum. Retrieved 15 November 2013.
Based on the median lethal dose value in mice, the Snake venom of the inland taipan is by far the most toxic of any snake – much more even than * The Australian venom research unit (25 August 2007). "Which snakes are the most venomous?" . University of Melbourne. Retrieved 14 October 2013.
target="_blank" rel="nofollow"> Ecology of Highly Venoumous Snakes: the Australian Genus Oxyuranus. "..the number of mouse LD50 doses per bite is much higher for Oxyuranus microlepidotus (218,000 mice)...than for any other snakes, including sea snakes, investigated to date (Broad, Sutherland and Coulter, 1979)." (page 1) University of Sydney. Retrieved 8 November 2013.
Although the most venomous and a capable striker, in contrast to the coastal taipan, which many experts cite as an extremely dangerous snake due to its behaviour when it encounters humans, the inland taipan is usually a shy and reclusive snake, with a placid disposition,* Cecilie Beatson (29 November 2011). Animal Species: Inland Taipan "The venom of the Inland Taipan is extremely potent and is rated as the most toxic of all snake venoms in LD50 tests on mice". Australian Museum. Retrieved 14 October 2013.
and prefers to escape from trouble.
The inland taipan was first described scientifically in 1879. Two specimens of the fierce snake were discovered at the junction of the Murray River and in northwestern Victoria and described by Frederick McCoy, who called the species Diemenia microlepidota, or small-Reptile scale Pseudonaja. In 1882, a third specimen was found near Bourke, New South Wales, and William John Macleay described the same snake under the name Diemenia ferox (thinking it was a different species). No more specimens were collected until 1972. In 1896, George Albert Boulenger classified both as belonging to the same genus, Pseudechis (black snakes), referring to them as Pseudechis microlepidotus and P. ferox.
In 1956, relying only on published descriptions and notes,Kinghorn, J. Roy (1 September 1955). Herpetological notes. No. 5 (page 284). Australian Museum Scientific Publications. Retrieved 14 November 2013. James Roy Kinghorn regarded ferox as a synonym for microlepidotus and proposed the genus Parademansia. In 1963, Eric Worrell considered Parademansia microlepidotus and Oxyuranus scutellatus (coastal taipan, named simply "taipan" in those days) to be the same species.
In September 1972, after receiving an unclassified snake head sample from a from one of the Channel Country stations west of Windorah of the far southwest Queensland, Jeanette Covacevich (then working for the Queensland Museum) and Charles Tanner travelled to the site and found 13 living specimens, and rediscovered the lost snake Parademansia microlepidotus. In 1976, Covacevich and Wombey argued that Parademansia microlepidotus belongs to a distinct genus, and this was also the opinion of Harold Cogger.
Covacevich, McDowell, Tanner & Mengden (1981) successfully argued, by comparing anatomical features, chromosomes, and behaviours of the two species then known as Oxyuranus scutellatus (taipan) and Parademansia microlepidota, that they belonged in a single genus. Oxyuranus (1923), the more senior name, was adopted for the combined genus.
Oxyuranus microlepidotus has been the fierce snake's binomial name since the early 1980s.Two Taipans. Two Taipans - Coastal and Western. (archived) Queensland Museum. Retrieved 15 November 2013.Covacevich, J., McDowell, S.B., Tanner, C. & Mengdon, G. (Aust. Herp. Symposium, 1980). The relationship of the taipan ( Oxyuranus scutellatus) and the small-scaled snake ( O. microlepidotus), Serpentes: Elapidae (page 32). kingsnake.com. Retrieved 15 November 2013. The Genus name Oxyuranus is from Greek oxys "sharp, needle-like", and ouranos "an arch" (specifically the arch of the heavens) and refers to the needle-like anterior process on the arch of the palate. The specific name microlepidotus means "small-Reptile scale" (Latin). Hence the common name, "small-scaled snake".Welton, Ronelle Ellen (2005) PhD thesis. Proteomic and genomic characterisation of venom proteins from Oxyuranus species. (microlepidotus). James Cook University. Retrieved 15 November 2013. Since Covacevich et al., 1981, determined that the fierce snake (formerly: Parademansia microlepidota) is actually part of the genus Oxyuranus (taipan), another species, Oxyuranus scutellatus, which was previously known simply as the "taipan" (coined from the aboriginal snake's name dhayban), was renamed the "coastal taipan" (or "eastern taipan"), while the now newly classified Oxyuranus microlepidotus became commonly known as the "inland taipan" (or "western taipan").
In Queensland, the snake has been observed in Channel Country region Wildlife of Channel Country (CHC) bioregion. (western taipan) Department of Environment and Heritage Protection (Queensland). Retrieved 10 November 2013. (e.g., Diamantina National Park, Durrie Station, Morney Plains StationDesert Channels region Natural resource management. Desert Channels Queensland's Biodiversity Plan . (Channel country, page 24 /special fauna areas) Government of Queensland. Retrieved 10 November 2013. and Astrebla Downs National Park Wildlife of Astrebla Downs National Park. (western taipan) Department of Environment and Heritage Protection (Queensland). Retrieved 10 November 2013.) and in South Australia it has been observed in the Marree-Innamincka NRM DistrictSouth Australia arid lands natural resources management board. Birdsville Strzelecki - Legendary tracks of the Marree Innamincka District. (Archived) (map of district on second page) (Inland taipan page 7) Government of South Australia. Retrieved 10 November 2013.South Australia arid lands natural resources management board. Marree – Innamincka Natural Resources Management Group (Archived). Government of South Australia. Retrieved 10 November 2013. (e.g., Goyder LagoonToxicon journal (January 1999) The smooth muscle relaxant effects of venom from the inland taipan ( Oxyuranus microlepidotus). (page 1) ResearchGate. Retrieved 10 November 2013. Tirari Desert, Sturt Stony Desert, Coongie Lakes, Innamincka Regional Reserve and Oodnadatta(Last updated: 19 July 2013). SAAL Regional Species Conservation Assessment Project (PDF sheet download, pages 50, 67). Department of Environment, Water and Natural Resources (South Australia). Retrieved 8 November 2013.). An isolated population also occurs near Coober Pedy, South Australia.South Australia arid lands natural resources management board. Biodiversity studies, Student fact sheet . Government of South Australia. Retrieved 15 October 2013.
Two old records exist for localities further south-east, i.e., the junction of the Murray and Darling Rivers in northwestern Victoria (1879) and Bourke, New South Wales (1882), but the species has not been observed in either state since then.
Conservation status for the snake was assessed for the IUCN Red List for the first time in July 2017, and in 2018, was designated as least concern, stating, "This species is listed as least concern, as it is widespread and overall, it is not considered to be declining. Although the impact of potential threats requires further research, these are likely to be localized within the snake's range."
The inland taipan's conservation status has also been designated by Australian official sources:Wildlife and ecosystems section. Threatened species criteria. Department of Environment and Heritage Protection (Queensland). Retrieved 8 November 2013.
The inland taipan is also on public display in Australia at the Australia Zoo, "Reptiles – Fierce Snake" . Australia Zoo. Retrieved 14 October 2013. Australian Reptile Park,Our Animals. Fierce Snake (Inland Taipan) . Australian Reptile Park. Retrieved 11 November 2013. Billabong Sanctuary, Cairns Tropical Zoo, Wildlife displays / The Reptile House. Retrieved 11 November 2013. Lone Pine Koala Sanctuary and Shoalhaven Zoo.
The snake is also on display at several locations outside of Australia. In the United States, inland taipans are held at the Reptile Gardens in South Dakota, at Kentucky Reptile ZooHelp support KRZ. Adopt a Zoo Animal / Australian Inland Taipan. Kentucky Reptile Zoo. Retrieved 11 November 2013. and at Animal World & Snake Farm Zoo in Texas.News (10 October 2013). Street's Corner: Houdini Heir Tries To Escape World's Deadliest Snake. KABB. (KABB "Fox San Antonio" official YouTube Channel). Retrieved 11 November 2013.Maloney, Ron (9 October 2013). Houdini descendant to perform in Seguin. Seguin Gazette. Retrieved 11 November 2013.Patoski, Joe Nick (14 July 2011). Snake Farm's Charms Still Casting Spells. The New York Times. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
In Europe, inland taipans are held in Sweden at the Stockholm Skansen Zoo and Gothenburg Universeum Moscow Zoo in Russia,AEZA news (January–March, 2004). Births and Hatchings / Moscow - Russian federation . (page 17) European Association of Zoos and Aquaria Magazine. Retrieved 11 November 2013. (in the Moscow Zoo they are kept in the House of Reptiles, which is not usually open to the general public.)(1 May 2007). Amazing World of Amphibians and Reptiles exhibition opens . Moscow Zoo. Retrieved 11 November 2013.UK Independent Zoo Enthusiasts Society, "Zoo Grapevine" newsletter (Fall, 2012). MOSCOW, Unique Zoo - Article from the "Zoo Grapevine" / "Behind the Scenes". (English translation via Google) Moscow Zoo. Retrieved 11 November 2013. and in the UK at the London Zoo. Amateur zoo listings also report the snake at the tropicarium park in Jesolo, Italy, in Gifttierhaus Eimsheim, Welt der Gifte Greifswald, and Terra Zoo Rheinberg, Germany, in Lausanne vivarium Lausanne, Switzerland, in Randers Tropical Zoo Denmark, in Plzeň Zoo Czech Republic, and in Reptilienzoo Nockalm Patergassen Austria.
In Asia, inland taipans are held in the Singapore Zoo.
It has 23 rows of dorsal scales at midbody, between 55 and 70 divided subcaudal scales, and one anal scale.
The inland taipan averages about in total length, although larger specimens can reach total lengths of . Its fangs are between 3.5 and 6.2 mm long (shorter than those of the coastal taipan).
Captive snakes generally live for 10 to 15 years. An inland taipan at the Australia Zoo lived to be over 20 years old.
Inland taipans are rarely encountered in the wild by the average person because of their remoteness and brief above-ground appearance during the day. So long as a person is not creating much vibration and noise, the inland taipan may not feel alarmed or bothered by a human presence.* South Australia arid lands natural resources management board. Biodiversity studies, Student fact sheet . Government of South Australia. Retrieved 15 October 2013.
The Ten Deadliest Snakes in the World with Steve Irwin, ITV (1998) film clip. . wildfilmhistory.org. Retrieved 15 October 2013.Steve Backshall talks about his rare encounter with an inland taipan (19 May 2013) film clip. "*YouTube Exclusive* Steve Backshall on world's deadliest snake - Deadly 60 in Australia". BBC Earth (official YouTube channel). Retrieved 28 October 2013. However, caution should be exercised and a safe distance maintained as it can inflict a potentially fatal bite. The inland taipan will defend itself and strike if provoked, mishandled, or prevented from escaping. Firstly, but not always, it makes a threat display by raising its forebody in a tight low S-shaped curve with its head facing the threat. Should the person choose to ignore the warning, the inland taipan will strike. It is an extremely fast and Agility snake that can strike instantly with extreme accuracy, and it Envenomation in almost every case.
Clinical toxicologist, venom researcher, Herpetology, and Family medicine Scott A. Weinstein et al. have stated in Toxicon journal (October 2017) "There have been 11 previously well-documented envenomings by O. microlepidotus, but only 2 were inflicted by wild snakes. When clinically indicated, prompt provision of adequate antivenom is the cornerstone of managing O. microlepidotus envenoming. Rapid application of pressure-bandage immobilization and efficient retrieval of victims envenomed in remote locales, preferably by medically well-equipped aircraft, probably improves the likelihood of a positive outcome."
In 1984, Australian toxicologist Peter Mirtschin was bitten by a 3-week-old inland taipan. He was the first to be treated with Taipan antivenom.
In September 2012, in the small city of Kurri Kurri, New South Wales, north of Sydney, more than 1000 km away from the snake's natural environment, a teenaged boy was bitten on the finger by an inland taipan. The teenager's rapid self-application of a Elastic bandage above the woundBreakfast News Program (27 September 2012 A teenage boy has survived being bitten by the world's most venomous snake.. Sunrise (Australian TV program) (official Youtube channel). Retrieved 16 October 2013. and the availability and administration of a polyvalent (broad-spectrum) antivenom in the local hospital saved his life. The police worked to find out how the inland taipan got to this part of Australia. The snake was most likely a stolen or illegal pet and the boy had tried to feed it.Proudman, Dan (26 September 2012) VIDEO: Detectives investigate after teen bitten by deadly taipan. The Newcastle Herald. Retrieved 16 October 2013.Petersen, Freya (27 September 2012). Australia: Sydney teenager survives bite by world's deadliest snake, the inland taipan. GlobalPost. Retrieved 16 October 2013.
In December 2013, reptile handler Scott Grant (age 40+), who was conducting a demonstration in front of 300 people at the annual building union's picnic in Portland, Victoria, had just finished showing the crowd an inland taipan and was trying to put it into a bag when it struck him. He got into his utility and tied a bandage around his arm. A few minutes later, however, he was lying on the ground and Convulsion. He was flown in a serious condition to Essendon Airport and driven to the Royal Melbourne Hospital, where his condition was stabilised, and over time, he recovered. Only a tiny amount of venom from the inland taipan had entered his body, and the adverse reaction he felt shortly after was an allergic one, presumably due to his past snake bites.
In October 2017, Weinstein et al. published a case report in Toxicon, writing, "The victim was seeking to observe members of an isolated population of this species and was envenomed while attempting to photograph an approximately 1.5 m specimen. He reported feeling “Somnolence” and blurred vision that progressed to ptosis; he later developed dysphagia and dysarthria. The patient was treated with one vial of polyvalent antivenom, which was later followed by an additional two vials of taipan monovalent. He was intubated during retrieval, and recovered after 3 days of intensive care. He had a right Ophthalmoparesis that persisted for approximately 1 week post-envenoming.".
According to Rob Bredl, "the Barefoot Bushman", in an isolated area of South Australia, his father, Joe Bredl, was bitten while catching an inland taipan and barely survived. A more recent victim was his friend John Robinson, bitten while cleaning an inland taipan's cage at his reptile display on the Sunshine Coast, Queensland. He weathered the bite without antivenom, but sustained considerable muscle damage, as well as heart damage.Rob Bredl website. The Taipans. (archived) barefootbushman.com. Retrieved 15 November 2013.
Almost all positively identified inland taipan bite victims have been herpetologists handling the snakes for study or snake handlers, such as people who catch snakes to extract their venom, or Zookeeper in . All were treated successfully with antivenom. No recorded incidents have been fatal since the advent of monovalent (specific) antivenom therapy, though weeks are needed to recover from such a severe bite.
The median lethal dose (LD50), subcutaneous (the most applicable to actual bites) for mice is 0.025 mg/kg (0.01 mg/kg subcutaneous, in bovine serum albumin). Compared to the beaked sea snake ( Enhydrina schistosa) 0.164 mg/kg, Indian cobra 0.565 mg/kg, North American eastern diamondback rattlesnake 11.4 mg/kg, the inland taipan has a smaller venom yield than its cousin the coastal taipan yet its venom is almost four times as toxic.Martin, Stella (January 2004). Newsletter No. 80. Environmental Protection Agency (Queensland). Retrieved 18 October 2013. One bite's worth of venom is enough to kill 100 fully grown men.
Intravenous, intraperitoneal, and intramuscular LD50s for the inland taipan venom have not been tested.Fry, Bryan, Deputy Director, Australian Venom Research Unit, University of Melbourne (9 March 2002). "Snakes Venom LD50 – list of the available data and sorted by route of injection ". venomdoc.com. (archived). Retrieved 14 October 2013.
Belcher's sea snake ( Hydrophis belcheri), which many times is mistakenly called the hook-nosed sea snake ( Enhydrina schistosa), has been erroneously popularized as the most venomous snake in the world, due to Ernst and Zug's published book Snakes in Question: The Smithsonian Answer Book from 1996. Bryan Grieg Fry, a prominent venom expert, has clarified the error: "The hook-nosed myth was due to a fundamental error in a book called Snakes in Question. In there, all the toxicity testing results were lumped in together, regardless of the mode of testing (e.g. subcutaneous vs. intramuscular vs. intravenous vs. intraperitoneal). As the mode can influence the relative number, venoms can only be compared within a mode. Otherwise, it's apples and rocks." Belcher's sea snake's actual LD50 (recorded only intramuscularly) is 0.24 mg/kg and 0.155 mg/kg, less lethal than other sea snakes such as the olive sea snake ( Aipysurus laevis) 0.09 mg/kg and the most toxic intramuscularly, recorded of the sea snakes – the Hydrophis ( Hydrophis melanosoma) 0.082 mg/kg. The black-banded robust sea snake has also been tested subcutaneously registering at 0.111 mg/kg, which is in line with the coastal taipan and thus more than four times less toxic than the inland taipan's venom. In the LD50 subcutaneous test, it is actually Dubois' sea snake ( Aipysurus duboisii) which has the most toxic venom of any of the sea snakes tested, registering at 0.044 mg/kg. This is still nearly half as lethal as the inland taipan's venom.
The biological properties and toxicity of a baby inland taipan's venom are not significantly different from or weaker than those of an adult's.
The inland taipan's venom consists of:Clinical Toxinology Resources. " Oxyuranus microlepidotus -General Details, Taxonomy and Biology, Venom, Clinical Effects, Treatment, First Aid, Antivenoms". University of Adelaide. Retrieved 14 October 2013.
Paradoxin (PDX) appears to be one of the most potent, if not the most potent, beta-neurotoxins yet discovered. Beta-neurotoxins keep nerve endings from liberating the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.
According to researcher Ronelle Welton of James Cook University, most of the contents in the venom have not been characterized and little Molecule research has been undertaken on taipan ( Oxyuranus) species at large. As of 2005, the amino acid sequences of only seven proteins from inland taipan have been submitted to UniProt databases.
Clinically, envenomation may represent a complex scenario of multiple organ-system poisoning, with neurotoxic symptoms typically dominating. Acute kidney injury, rhabdomyolysis, and disseminated coagulopathy may also complicate the setting.Clinical Toxinology Resources. Snakebite Protocols – Oxyuranus microlepidotus . University of Adelaide. Retrieved 18 October 2013.
The first local and general symptoms of a bite are local pain and variable nonspecific effects, which may include headache, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, dizziness, collapse, or convulsions leading to major organ effects - neurotoxicity, coagulopathy, rhabdomyolysis or kidney failure/damage, and finally death.
Inland taipan snake venom contains potent presynaptic neurotoxins (toxins in venom that cause paralysis or muscle weakness). Also present are postsynaptic neurotoxins, which are less potent, but more rapidly acting than the presynaptic neurotoxins.Clinical Toxinology Resources. Australian Taipan Snakes – Venom of Taipan snakes. University of Adelaide. Retrieved 16 October 2013. Presynaptic neurotoxins disrupt neurotransmitter release from the axon terminal. This takes days to resolve and does not respond to antivenom. Postsynaptic neurotoxins competitively block acetylcholine receptors, but the effect can be reversed by antivenom. Envenoming causes a progressive descending flaccid paralysis; ptosis is usually the first sign, then facial (dysarthria) and bulbar involvement occur, progressing to dyspnea and respiratory paralysis leading to suffocation and peripheral weakness. Because it can act so fast, it can kill a person within about 45 minutes. People experiencing effects of the venom within half an hour have been reported.Gardiner, Stephanie (27 September 2012). "Mystery over boy bitten by world's most venomous snake". (Quoting Julie Mendezona, Head keeper of Reptiles and Spiders, Australian Reptile Park) The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 14 October 2013.AFP (27 September 2012). "Teenager bitten by inland taipan in Hunter Valley". The Australian. Retrieved 14 October 2013. The development of general or respiratory paralysis is of paramount concern in that these are often difficult to reverse once established, even with large amounts of antivenom. Prolonged intubation and ventilatory support (perhaps up to a week or longer) may be required. Early diagnosis of neurotoxic symptoms and prompt and adequate dosages of antivenom are critical to avoid these complications.
The venom also contains a potent hemotoxin (), a Thrombin activator that leads to the consumption of major coagulation factors, including fibrinogen, leading to interference with blood clotting. This causes defibrination, with nonclottable blood, putting victims at risk of major bleeding from the bite site and can lead to more serious, sometimes fatal, internal haemorrhaging, especially in the brain. Recovering from this takes many hours after venom neutralisation has been achieved with antivenom. Taipan snake procoagulants are among the most powerful snake venom procoagulants known, though mild coagulopathy has also been reported for inland taipan envenomation (Sutherland and Tibballs, 2001).
No Nephrotoxin (kidney toxins) have so far been isolated from inland taipan snake venoms, but renal (kidney) impairment or acute kidney failure can occur secondary to severe rhabdomyolysis.
Taipan snake venom does contain myotoxins that cause myolysis (rhabdomyolysis, muscle damage); the urine of bite victims often turns reddish-brown as their muscles release myoglobin, which is passed through the kidneys (myoglobinuria). The kidneys are often badly damaged by filtering so much tissue debris out of the blood, and kidney failure is a common complication in serious cases of significant envenoming.Shorter, Damon. Great Australian bites – Three of the worst. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 16 October 2013.
The coastal taipan antivenom, known as "taipan antivenom", Inland Taipan Oxyuranus microlepidotus . venomsupplies.com. Retrieved 18 October 2013. is effective against the inland taipan venom, as well, but it is not as effective in bite victims of the inland taipan as in those of the coastal taipan.
Taipan antivenom is produced and manufactured by the Australian Reptile Park and the CSL Limited in Melbourne.Anti-Venom Program. Involvement with the Anti-Venom Program . Reptile Gardens. Retrieved 18 October 2013.
|
|
